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a priori 47, 113–14
abortion, ethics of 226–7
ageing 30
Alexander the Great 10
alienation 161
analytic statements 112, 191–2
animals 124, 242–4
Anselm 46–9, 50
Ontological Argument 46–9, 67
anthropomorphism 78
appearance and reality 4–5, 15
Aquinas, Thomas 49, 185
First Cause Argument 49-50, 185
Arendt, Hannah 207, 208–13
affair with Martin Heidegger 210
‘banality of evil’ 212
Eichmann trial 208–13
Aristotle 8, 9–14, 20, 40, 49, 116, 120
bravery 12–13
Golden Mean 13
The Nicomachean Ethics 9
virtue 12–13
Arouet, François-Marie see Voltaire
asceticism 136
atheism 47, 61, 75, 79, 98, 104, 147, 167, 180–1, 185, 194
Augustine 33, 34–9, 69, 205
conversion to Christianity 35
free will 37–9
Manichaeism 36–7
moral evil 35–9
Original Sin 38–9
Avicenna 35
Ayer, A.J. 127, 166, 189, 190–5
Boo!/Hooray! Theory 194
Language, Truth and Logic 190–5
meaning of ‘God exists’ 194
near death experience 194–5
verifiability 192
The Verification Principle 190–5
Beauvoir, Simone de 196–7, 200
The Second Sex 197, 200
Being and Nothingness 197
Bentham, Jeremy 120, 121–5, 138, 139, 193, 242
auto-icon 121
Felicific Calculus 123
panopticon 121–2
utilitarianism 122–5
Berkeley, George 86, 87–92
esse est percipi 90
idealism 88
immaterialism 88–92
Samuel Johnson’s ‘refutation’ 88
tar water 92
Boethius, Ancius Manlius Severinus 39, 40–5, 46
The Consolation of Philosophy 41–5
God’s foreknowledge and predestination 43–5
luck 42
Borgia, Cesare 52, 53, 56
Boswell, James 104
Boyle, Robert 81
Buddha 132–3
Caerophon 3
Calas, Jean 97–8
Camus, Albert 200–1
Candide 95–8
Categorical Imperative 118–19
Chamberlain, Neville 56
Charles II 82
Chinese Room thought experiment 234–8
Cicero, Marcus Tullius 30, 40
City of God (Augustine) 35
cogito ergo sum 66
communism 161
Communist Manifesto 161–2
computers 233, 234–8
Confessions 35, 205
The Consolation of Philosophy 41–5
Copernicus, Nicolaus 176, 220
The Critique of Pure Reason 111–14
Darwin, Charles 144, 145–51, 174, 177
evolution 146, 148–51
Galapagos Islands 148–9
On the Origin of Species 144, 145
religious belief 150–1
voyage of HMS Beagle 147–9
Darwin, Erasmus 149
Dawkins, Richard 147
death 12, 21, 22–3, 25–7, 29, 104
deduction 216
deism 98
Dennett, Daniel 146
Descartes, René 16, 61, 62–8, 71, 113, 181
Cartesian co-ordinates 62
Cartesian dualism 66–7
cogito ergo sum 66
dream argument 64–5
evidence of senses 64
evil demon 65–6, 68
Method of Doubt (Cartesian Doubt) 63–8
Descriptions, Theory of 188
Design Argument (for God’s existence) 99–104, 151
determinism 79
Diogenes Laertius 16
Discourse on Method 63
dogmatism 20
Double Effect, Law of 224–5
dualism 66–7
Eichmann, Adolf 207, 208–13
Eichmann in Jerusalem 212
Einstein Albert 80, 219
Either/Or 153, 155–6
Eliot, George 80
emotion 29, 79–80
empiricism 113
Engels, Friedrich 159–60, 161–2
Epictetus 29, 42
Epicurus 21, 22–7, 104
asymmetry argument 26
death not experienced 25–6
his epitaph 27
on fear of death 22–3, 25–7
meaning of ‘epicurean’ 24–5
on punishment after death 26–7
equality 124
esse est percipi 90
Euclid 77
eudaimonia 11 see also happiness
euthanasia 242
evil demon see Descartes, René
Evil, Problem of 34–9
moral evil 35–9
natural evil 35
existentialism 195, 199, 200, 201
experience machine 125
faith 71–5
Fear and Trembling 152–3, 155
Felicific Calculus 123
feminism 143–4
First Cause Argument (for God’s existence) 49–50
FitzRoy, Robert 150
Foot, Philippa 221, 222–3
Ford, Henry 128
Forms, Plato’s Theory of see Plato free speech 143
free will 44, 79–80
Freud, Sigmund 175, 176–82
dreams 179
Freudian slips 179
Oedipus Complex 178–9
Popper’s critique 181
religion as illusion 180–1
the unconscious 177–82
Galileo Galilei 14
Gaunilo of Marmoutiers 47–9
George III 105
The Genealogy of Morality 173–4
God
‘death of ’ 171–3
definition of 35, 102, 194
Design Argument 99–103
and evil 37–9
First Cause Argument 49–50
infinite 78
meaning of ‘God exists’ 194
miracles 103–4
Ontological Argument 46–9
pantheism 76
Pascal’s Wager 71–5
pragmatism 167–8
predestination 44–5, 71 see also Evil, Problem of
Good Samaritan 116–17
happiness
Aristotle 10–14
Bentham 122–5
Boethius 42
Mill 139–40
Phyrro 18
Harm Principle 141, 143
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich 111, 125, 126–31,133, 157, 161–2, 191
dialectical method 129
French Revolution 127
history 128–31
Kant’s influence 128
master/slave 130
The Phenomenology of Spirit 130
Spirit 129–31
Heidegger, Martin 210
Hippocrates 31
Hitler, Adolf 56, 208, 209, 211
Hobbes, Thomas 56, 57–61, 107
human nature 57–8
Leviathan 59, 60
materialism 59–60
social contract 59
state of nature 57
Homer 173
human nature 12
human rights 118
Hume, David 99–104, 105, 147, 192, 216
his death 104
Design Argument 99–103
Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 101
Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding 100
miracles 103–4
Husserl, Edmund 210
Hutcheson, Francis 122
Huxley, Thomas Henry 144
idealism
Berkeley’s 88
immaterialism 88–92
Induction, Problem of 216–17
James, Henry 166
James, William 163, 164–9
cash value’ 163, 165
Other Minds, Problem of 169
pragmatism 165–70
religion 167–8
truth 165–9
Jansenism 71
Jesus 38
Joyful Wisdom 171
Kant, Immanuel 109, 110–14, 115–20, 123, 124, 128, 133, 134, 172, 175, 191, 192
Categorical Imperative 118–19
The Critique of Pure Reason 111–14
Emotions 115–16
moral philosophy 115–20
synthetic a priori 112
universalizability 118–19
Kekulé, August 217
Kierkegaard, Søren 151, 152–7
Abraham and Isaac 152–4
Either/Or 153, 155–6
Faith 154–5
Fear and Trembling 152–3, 155
Olsen, Regine 153, 156
know thyself 131
Kuhn, Thomas 220–1
‘normal science’ 220
paradigm shift 220 T
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 220
Language, Truth and Logic 190–5
Leibniz, Gottfried 78, 93–4
Leviathan 59
Locke, John 80, 81–6, 89, 91–2, 100, 107, 113, 138
blank slate 81, 113
An Essay Concerning Human Understanding 86
personal identity 82–6
primary and secondary qualities 89–90
prince and cobbler 83–4
realism 89–90
Thomas Reid’s criticism 85–6
logical positivism 166, 190
luck 29, 41–5, 53
Lucretius 25
lying 117–18, 124
Machiavelli, Niccolò 50, 51–6, 106
cynicism 55
diplomatic career 52–3
luck 53
‘machiavellian’ 55
realism 56
virtù 53, 54
Manichaeism 36
Maimonides 35
Marx, Karl 127, 157, 158–63
alienation 161
class struggle 159
communism 161
Communist Manifesto 161–2
Engels, Friedrich 159–60, 161–2
religion 162
materialism 59–60
mathematics 65, 113–14
Medawar, Peter 219
medieval philosophy 34–5
Meditations 63
Meinong, Alexius 187, 188
Meletus 7
metaphysics 111
Mill, James 138
Mill, John Stuart 125, 137, 138–44, 185, 193–4, 242
education 138–9
feminism 143–4
free speech 143
geniuses 142
Harm Principle 141, 143
higher and lower pleasures 139–40
offence 142
On Liberty 141–3, 144
paternalism 141
The Subjection of Women 143–4
utilitarianism 139–40, 141, 142
miracles 103–4
Nero 32
Newton, Isaac 81, 214
The Nicomachean Ethics 9
Nicomachus 9
Nietzsche, Friedrich 170, 171–5, 177
death of God 171, 172
Elisabeth, his sister 174–5
The Genealogy of Morality 173–4
Joyful Wisdom 171
Thus Spake Zarathustra 174
Übermensch 174
The Will to Power 175
writing style 172
noumenon 111–12, 128, 134
Nozick, Robert 125, 231–2
Olsen, Regine 153, 156
On Liberty 141–3, 144
On the Origin of Species 144, 145, 150
Ontological Argument (for God’s existence) 46–9, 67
Orco, Remirro de 54
Original Sin 38–9
pantheism 76, 78–9
paradox 44
Pascal, Blaise 68, 69–75, 168
Catholicism 69
Jansenism 71
Pascaline (calculator) 70
Pascal’s Wager 71–5
Pensées (‘Thoughts’) 70, 71
paternalism 141
Peirce, C.S. 165–6
Pensées 70, 71
personal identity 82–6
The Phenomenology of Spirit 130
philosophy as therapy 24, 27, 33, 40
Plato 4–6, 9, 10–11, 19, 35, 38, 40, 131, 139
anti-democratic tendency 6
cave, analogy of 5
censorship of art 6
dialogues 4
Forms, Theory of 5–6, 10–11, 19
learning as recollection 43
Socrates’ student 9
The Republic 6
totalitarianism 6
pleasure 122–5, 139–40
Pope, Alexander 93
Popper, Karl 181, 213, 214–21
falsificationism 218–19
on psychoanalysis 218–19
pseudo-science 218
pragmatism 165–70
predestination 44–5, 71
primary qualities 89–90
The Prince 51–6
promises 51, 58–9
Proslogion 46
Pyrrho 14–21, 63, 64, 66
visit to India 18
Raphael, The School of Athens 10
rationalism 113
Rawls, John 227, 228–33
Difference Principle 231
Liberty Principle 230–1
Original Position 230
A Theory of Justice 229–32
realism 89–90
Reid, Thomas 85–6
Robespierre, Maximilien 106
Rorty, Richard 169–70
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 104, 105–9, 131, 143, 161
forced to be free’ 108–9
French Revolution 106
General Will 107–9
noble savage 106
State of Nature 106
Will of All 107
Russell, Bertrand 127, 168, 182, 183–9, 202
against religion 184–5
Descriptions, Theory of 188
non-existence 187
Russell’s Paradox 185–7
Ryle, Gilbert 66–7
Sartre, Jean-Paul 156, 196–201
anguish 199
bad faith 198
Being and Nothingness 197
café waiter 198
existentialism 199, 200
‘Existentialism is a Humanism’ 199
freedom 198
Satan 37
scepticism
Cartesian Doubt 63–8
and philosophy 20
Phyrronic 15–21, 63, 64, 66
Schopenhauer, Arthur 131, 132–7, 191
art 135
asceticism 136
morality 136
pessimism 132, 137
World as Representation 133–4
World as Will 133–6
Searle, John 234–8
Chinese Room thought experiment 234–8
criticism of 237
syntax and semantics 236
The Second Sex 197, 200
secondary qualities 89–90
self 80–6, 132–3
Seneca, Lucius Annaeus 30–2, 40
senses 16
Singer, Peter 23, 124, 127, 233, 238, 239–45
Animal Liberation 242
animals 242–4
charity 239–41
consequentialism 242
consistency 244
euthanasia 242
sanctity of life 241–2
speciesism 243 vegetarianism 243–4
The Social Contract 106–9, 161
Socrates 1–8, 9, 10, 13, 16, 20, 138, 139, 155, 244, 245
Aristotle’s teacher 9
Delphic oracle 3
inner voice 8
Plato’s teacher 9
trial and execution 7–8
unexamined life not worth living 4, 7–8
and Western philosophy 3–4
Sophists 2–3
speciesism 243
Spinoza, Baruch 75, 76–80
Ethics 77, 78
excommunication 80
free will 79
lens grinder 78
pantheism 76, 78–9
Rationalism
squeamishness 54
Stephen, James Fitzjames 143
Stockdale, James B. 29–30
Stoicism, 27, 28–33, 42 see also Zeno of Citium, Epictetus, Cicero, Seneca
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 220
The Subjection of Women 143–4
Summa Theologica 49
Swift, Jonathan 92
synthetic a priori 112
synthetic statements 112–13, 192
Taylor, Harriet 144
Theodoric 41
A Theory of Justice 229–32
Thomson, Judith Jarvis 221
ethics of abortion 226–7
unwanted violinist 226–7
variant of runaway train thought experiment 223–4
thought experiment 65–6, 221, 222–7
Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus 202–3
Trademark Argument (for God’s existence) 67
truth by authority 14
Turing, Alan 235, 238
Turing Test 235
Übermensch 174
unhappiness 19
universalizability 118–19
utilitarianism 122–5, 139
vegetarianism 243–4
virtù 53, 54
virtue 12–13
Voltaire 92, 93–8
Candide 95–8
defence of Jean Calas, 97–8
deism 98
free speech 94
Wallace, Alfred Russel 150
Wilberforce, Samuel 144
The Will to Power 175
Wittgenstein, Ludwig 25, 201, 202–7
beetle in the box 205–6
family resemblance 203–4
private language 206
Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus 202–3
The World as Will and Representation 133
Zeno of Citium 28–9